Identification After Gender Essay Example for Free

Identification After Gender Essay Time episode Fionna and Cake and reading Berengier of the Long Ass, the expectations of genders are exposed through the reversal of roles in both of these pieces. The characters in these stories clearly demonstrate the expectations that certain males and females must negotiate in order to expose the problems when there is labeling of certain genders. Judith Butlers analysis of gender is that it is performative- meaning that nobody really is a gender from the start; after watching the video and reading the text for this exercise, t is clear that Fionna and The Knight expose the misconceptions of gender throughout societies today. In our society today there are certain notions that many people have about what are right and wrong for males and females to wear, think, and act. There are certain things that are expected out of males- a toughness about them, an attitude that declares them as the man of the house- that is unfairly labeled upon every male in our society. Females are expected to be the ones who constantly act girly and let the males do everything involving manual labor- this is an unfair label that is placed upon every female in our society. The video that Judith Butler takes part in is an example of a certain female who does not believe in conforming with the problems of the rest of our society- taking a stand against the normal ideas of the public. Judith Bakers ideas are expressed throughout Fionna and Cake and Berengier of the Long Ass, when Fionna , The Lady, and The Knight expose these misconceptions by swapping roles; The Lady and Fionna act as the males, while Prince Gumball and The Knight act as the females. The idea that Fionna and The Lady act as the males in these stories define the problem that our society has when it omes to the definition of males and females. There are certain expectations that must be fulfilled when it comes to being seen as a male or female, but in these two pieces (video and story), the main characters both reject the expectations, or try and fulfill them unsuccessfully. In the Adventure Time episode Fionna and Cake Fionna and Prince Gumball act as their opposite gender in many ways. Throughout Fionna and Cake Fionna refuses to completely fulfill these expectations that are placed among most females. Fionna goes through the majority of the video as a tomboy who would rather carry weapons in her person than make-up. However, by the end of the video she adapts to the normal expectations for females by dressing up in a dress and trying to flatter Prince Gumball. In order for Fionna to expose the expectations of certain genders, Fionna goes to the extreme limit when trying to act as a boy; for there is nothing more manly for a human-being to do than to save someones life. Fionna saves Prince Gumball, which in turn creates a relationship between the two that was not there before. It becomes evident that there is a gender swap in this video when Fionna is the one who is catching Prince Gumball when he falls from the ceiling. o infatuate Fionna, portraying the inner-man of Princess Ice, and getting the inner- woman out of Fionna. Fionna Justifies the ideas of Judith Butlers by showing the audience that it took awhile for her to find her preferred gender- switching preferences multiple times between the beginning and end of the video. Fionna proves that any female can be happy doing male-type things, but also can be happy with a man, which goes against the norm of being a tom boy. By the end of the story it is clear that Fionna chooses to give up the girly personality that is expected mong women, while consistently being herself, and attracting the Prince of her dreams. In the reading Berengier of the Long Ass, The Knight and his Lady successfully pull off an epic gender swap that The Knight would not be very proud of. Throughout the beginning of the story the Lady constantly criticizes her husband for being lazy and not being a chivalrous Knight. Because she questions the Knights manhood, the Knight forces himself to make a change. The Knight then tries to fulfill the expectations of Knights in our society by creating fake battles in the forests to impress his wife. Because he does a bad Job of faking his fatigue and injuries after these fake battles, the wife begins to catch on to his tricks. The wife then follows him to the next battle realizing that what he was saying the whole entire time was a fraud. Butlers applications to gender being performative comes into play here, because the Knight tries so hard to be a man -that his life turns upside down because of it. The Knights wife then brings back another guy to the house, knowing that because her husband is a woman in her eyes, he will not even think about doing anything to harm her. When the Knight realizes that his attempt at conforming to the publics interpretation ofa knight has failed, he feels as though he is a failure- for the only important in most knights life is the chivalrous way in which they live. A Knights expectation is to be the most brave, genuine, and honest guy of all; however, in this case the knights wife was more of a knight than he was. The Knight in this story tried to adapt to the expectations that are naturally placed on him, and instead of adapting he completely failed at his attempt. Most people are better off being their atural-selves than trying to fulfill the expectations that others place on them. After analyzing Fionna, Prince Gumball, The Knight, and his wife, it is obvious that being yourself leads to the most happiness between one and their partner. Fionna maintains her inner-boy personality and ends up being the happiest girl in the world. The Knight tries to change his personality and ends up watching his wife hang out with another man. Judith Butlers ideas really make sense after analyzing these characters because of the way in which characters can reject the expectations of their gender and be completely happy because of it.

The Definition Of Community Development Sociology Essay

The Definition Of Community Development Sociology Essay In the last chapter, the researcher introduced the research background, stated the research aims and described the research problem. This chapter starts with the definition of community development, general concepts of community development and explores the community development framework. It also discusses community development in Belfast, Northern Ireland and links it to the basis of the study, which is the perception of residents on community development in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The Definition of community development, general concepts of community and community development Community as a unit of action can play the lead in development of Belfast communities. The basic process of planning community development is to identify needs of communities in Belfast, establish mutually agreeable goals and objectives, and implement plans by mobilizing accessible resources and community coalitions for community betterment. Accordingly, a variety of community planning strategies and actions can be created and actively implemented with the involvement of Belfast residents. The definition of community has been discussed in a variety of ways for many decades. Hillery (1955); Kaufman (1959); Bell and Newby (1972); Wilkinson (1972) agreed that the three general components of a community include a shared territory, a local society, and a process of locality-oriented collective actions. Belfast as a city or community is made up of inner communities or neighbourhoods. A shared territory refers to a geographic location, such as a neighbourhood, town, city, county, region, country, and so forth. A local society is an integrated union in which the daily activities of people and a complement of social structures embody all aspects of a common life. A process of locality-oriented collective actions can be understood as the local residents exerting effort collectively on behalf of their common interests. In this research, I specifically focus on the town/city community levels in Belfast to better understand whether this level of community forms a strong sense of belonging, thereby binding its residents together and joining their inner effort in response to external social and economic changes, as well as the demands of community development in general. Fawcett et al. (1984) emphasized on local residents self-motivation to establish their development agendas for the community. The last element mentioned here is the opportunity of community members to participate in public discussion. It is important for community development to involve many individuals, segments, classes, and groups within the community, and that each member has an equal chance to speak up and take part in the public forum. In addition, democracy, rationality, and the orientation toward accomplishment of community development agendas in which Belfast residents participate are key factors. Communication and power structure within the community are also important aspects. Since a community is understood to be a living place manifesting the physical characteristics of a setting and a social and historical context, community development should be considered in terms of the meaning of locality through personal activities, experiences, shared values, and the common historical memory. As a result, the concepts of community and community development adopted in this study consist of a shared territory, a local society, and the process of community autonomy and empowerment for a general purpose of community betterment. 2.3 Community Development Frameworks The main focus of community development has been the normal concept of solving problems and betterment of quality of life in rural communities. The way to improve rural life and life in Belfast is to identify problems and then solve them by enhancing community empowerment and advancement. Sanders (1958) considers the importance of social organizations in Community development, which are in charge of certain missions within communities. Sanders identified the role of hierarchical structure in communities in terms of detecting problems, setting agendas, and implementing plans. His view of development emphasizes social channels through which community programs can be carried out. The social channels refer to a well-developed organization with a clear division of labour, resource accessibility, and members sharing common values and pursuing the same objectives. Social organizations are the primary agents participating in community process and mobilizing resources to implement plans for their common goal. Community development, according to Sanders, is equivalent to development of organizations in Belfast that effectively implement subject-matter specialties such as health, welfare, agriculture, industry, recreation, etc across all levels from groups and associations to communities and regions (Sanders 1958:5). *Rothman (1979) identified the social planning approach as one of the ways to understand community development. He argued that the social planning approach is a technical process with regard to a certain community problem and emphasized rational, deliberately planned, and controlled change within communities (Rothman 1979:27). The rationality approach helps to manipulate the process of community development into standard phases of identifying problems, mobilizing resources, and setting agendas to implement programs for the goal of social betterment. There must be a constant interaction between identifying a problem, making a decision, and taking action to share and express concerns or community problems for communities in Belfast to experience change. Community development provides a good opportunity to explore issues of poverty in Belfast. The emphasis is on the opportunity for creating jobs, thereby raising the real incomes of residents. Hence, Belfast as a community is seen as a collection of micro units, and these units, their interactions, and their relationships with external units comprise the community economic system. Since communities in Belfast have increasingly engaged in their economic development, there are at least two different strategies adopted: community-oriented self-development and exogenous industrial recruitment (Summers and Branch 1984). Exogenous industrial recruitment refers to a form of development that encourages outside investors and firms to locate their businesses in the rural communities where local residents might expect to have the power to set substantial management strategies to promote the communitys common benefit. Self-development has come with the awakening of community empowerment because the strategy of industrial recruitment for facilitating development has been criticized. The main factors that spur self-development were the exodus of factories and the stagnating economy in communities. Still, the effect of the flourishing grassroots movement cannot be ignored. For many communities in Belfast, self-development strategies offer potential benefits for maintaining or improving their economic activities. According to Flora et al., community-oriented self-development strategies involve cooperation between the public and private sectors to create locally-controlled jobs and new sources of income (1991:20). These authors also identified three characteristics of the self-development model: (1) involvement by a local government, (2) investment of substantial local resources, and (3) the control of enterprises or activities locally (Flora et al. 1991). As such, broad community involvement revitalizes local economic activities by financing and organizational effort. At the same time, local residents can choose businesses according to characteristics that fit their demand closely and that will not damage their natural resources permanently, alter their landscape irrevocably, or change their lifestyle dramatically. For example, Flora et al. (1991) categ orized community-oriented self-development projects based on major activities and found that the most popular projects involve tourism, arts and crafts fairs, and recreational or cultural activity. Following that, existing business retention and expansion and downtown revitalization are also seen as important projects (Flora et al. 1991). In other words, by developing clean/hospitality industry and revitalizing/individualizing their hometown, communities in Belfast can re-launch local economic activities with the goal of sustainably utilizing their natural resources and community assets. Since economic considerations that are dominant in modern societies have also been prevalent in community development studies, Belfast residents demand for a certain level of economic expansion to improve their economic conditions that reflects the core theme of this economic development approach. Since areas that depend on a single source of income are vulnerable to economic restructuring, the key is to provide them with diverse sources of economic sufficiency. Studies of community economic development illustrate how the structural disadvantages of community economic development influence the ways community members respond to local development paths and what strategies they adopt to solve problems. For example, according to Blakely (1994), communities have faced difficult and overwhelming circumstances in local economic development, and must be aware of the problems affecting the local economy and its consequences; local economic development and employment generation should be initiated at the community level to deal more effectively with these local problems facing the community (Blakely 1994:27). 2.4 Community as a field for development The community should be seen as a whole, rather than as the sum of its parts, wherein the interconnections among individuals, groups, associations, and organizations form concrete social forces to cope with external and internal changes facing the community (Fawcett et al. 1995). Kaufman (1959) argued that development must go beyond planned economic programs and place more priority on improving and increasing community residents identification with the locality in order to get them involved in the process of local development. This process empowers the local community. To carry out such identification with the locality, collaborative action and mutual identity are emphasized prominently in this theoretical orientation. Elaborating extensively on Kaufmans interactional perspective on community, Wilkinson (1970) tied social structure in to the context of community development. He claimed that social structure is defined in an interactional context as observable relationships built up through an action process by members. The role and position of members in a given interactional network are identified and classified to evaluate the pattern of the structure, which determines the continuity of social processes and the direction of social change. It is a network structure-building orientation of community development that focuses on integrative and generalizing networks in the local society (Wilkinson 1970, 1972). This interactional orientation of community development argued that the instrumental orientation of development sees project achievement as the ultimate goal of community development, but, in fact, development should be seen as a dynamic, ongoing process. There are inherent problems behind mate rial demands and physical construction, and there are no substantial, permanent solutions for them. Planned programs for community development are only one of many solutions to achieve social betterment and should focus on building the community field in which the collaborative capacity to pursue locality-oriented common interests is more crucial to the process of community development than solving the immediate physical problems. Wilkinson (1986) argued that empowered collective-oriented community action is the fundamental basis for community development and that community attachment plays an important role in fostering such processes of empowerment. Therefore, exploring the determinants of local residents attachment to their communities becomes an essential step to building up local capacity to deal with community development issues. It is not urbanization or industrialization that directly changes the relationships among local residents or their sense of community. It is the different opportunities and contexts for social interaction leading to different social dynamics that alter the connections between individuals and the society. Beggs et al. (1996) used a name generator method to gather information on respondents social networks and analyzed how closely the respondents interacted in daily life, as well as the strength and duration of their social ties in order to define community attachment. Others, like Brehm, Eisenhauer, and Krannich (2004), adopted multi-dimensional methods to measure community attachment via collective action indicators (including land-based production and conservation involvement, social involvement, and economic/development involvement) and natural environment attachment indicators. By considering two dimensions of community attachment, they found the concept of community attachment cannot be seen as simple social interaction, but as well-developed community cohesion through the linkage between individuals, organizati ons and their locality. Rothman (1979:26) contended that locality development should focus on the broad participation of a wide spectrum of people at the local community level in goal determination and action. According to Rothmans (1979) argument, such broad citizen participation is not only instrumental in solving specific community problems, but also for more general activities, such as democratic procedures, voluntary cooperation, community empowerment, and development of indigenous leadership. This locality development approach emphasized the whole local systems capacity for building and maintaining in which a fundamental network structure should be built up by establishing cooperative relationships among groups by creating a self-help community problem solving system and stimulating residents interest and participation in community affairs. These goals of locality development emphasized community organizations and the harmonious interrelationships among them. To integrate the arguments of community development as a process of interaction, community fields where the community capacity for collective action can be created for the common good and social betterment. Forms of interaction include formal and informal social contact within organized and unorganized social activities. Through such purposeful and non-purposeful interactions, social forces are raised to respond to local issues. Specifically, a community field is manifested in the interactional structure among local residents, groups, and organizations contributing together to the accomplishment of specific objectives of community projects. The central focus of community field theory is on structurally oriented interactions through which communication occurs and fosters positive and cohesive relationships among community members. In addition, Sharp (2001) analyzed community by for examining the concept of community field perspectives in the relationships between network structure and development. He found that these network structures can help community members to cooperate with local organizations, to access resources, to get information flowing among them, and to identify attributes of the community that enhance general capacity for local action. Pavey et al. (2007) contends that the ultimate goal of community development is to build the communitys capacity to manage its own world based on members own meaning systems. They focused on exploring whether sound social relationships were a driving force to stimulate community capacity and strengthen self-governance on community issues. In their findings, interactional field theory was confirmed by the positive relationship between the community field and economic development through horizontal linkages among community members. The changes of social distance and degrees of community attachment among local residents influence the potential community cohesion and collaborative action that can be taken to approach the community common good. Some empirical studies have examined this argument. Sharp (2001) focused on selected features of small-town social structure and its relationship to the community capacity for local action. Drawing on the interactional perspective, community network analysis, and community power research, he proposed an approach to measuring and evaluating the community field to understand more clearly the relationship between community structure and the capacity for local action. His findings complement the thinking on community social capital and social infrastructure and reveal that social relationships and local residents interaction structure are importantly associated with the community capacity for local action. Development should be focused on the community itself, rather than relying solely on neo-classical economics individualism and political-economics macro structuralism. Community development is as a means to an end, a process of guiding for a particular purpose that is eventually helpful to the local community. Furthermore, community development has been realized as a social movement, a process of empowering community that tends to build up its own organizational structure, accepted procedures, and active practitioners within its territory. It stresses and promotes the idea of community development as interpreted by its local residents. In response to such an argument, we might ask that, in the process of building horizontal network ties, hierarchical inequality of power within class, gender, or other social structures could be minimized in order to pursue empowerment of each individual. Traditional community researchers simplify community development as the process of community empowerment in which community capacity is crucial for a better life in the community. 2.5 Research focus from the framework Community development obviously has a variety of meanings to local residents and their personal attitudes toward the vision of their community future are influenced by their attitudes and opinions on issues facing the local community. This research primarily focuses on individuals attitudes toward their local community development through the five models. By examining the research hypotheses, this study analyzes rural residents experiences in local community life to determine preferences for community development alternatives as guided by the five elements of the model. In order to examine the research hypotheses in terms of the relationship between local residents general attitudes toward the current conditions and local community attitudes toward development alternatives, as well as individuals socio-demographic characteristics logistic regression modelling is applied. In five logistic regressions, individuals major concerns with regard to community development issues are used as the dependent variable. Independent variables are used to examine the dependent models through five research hypotheses. Resident attitudes towards community development preferences form the core theme in this research. Therefore, the significance of research is to examine observable changes that shape towards local community circumstances in response to developments their own expectations and attitudes toward future community development alternatives.

GA3 Producing Fusarium and its Impact on Growth

GA3 Producing Fusarium and its Impact on Growth Isolation and characterization of Gibberellic acid 3 producing Fusarium sp. from Belgaum agriculture land and its impact on green pea and rice growth promotion Abstract Worldwide ultimate aim of any agriculture sector or farmer is to take maximum yield. Sufficient supply of nutrients and fertilizer are not able to give maximum yield. There are numerous factors which are responsible for low yield, among that one is the environment stress or the unstable climate conditions. To increase the yield there are numerous approaches like use of genetically modified crops, but in India it is controversial approach and another approach is the use of multifunctional plant hormone like Gibberellic acid 3 (GA3). This research mainly involves the production of GA3 from fungal species and to apply it on crop plants. Fusarium species were isolated from Belgaum agriculture soil and screened for GA3 production under submerged fermentation. Strain showing maximum GA3 yield (strain M104) was taken to study the effect of various parameters on GA3 production, like incubation time (1 – 12 days), initial pH (5.0 -8.0), incubation temperature (20 – 40  °C), pH (5.0 -8.0), and carbon and nitrogen sources. The maximum production of GA3 was observed on day 8 at 30  °C, and pH 5.5 with glucose and ammonium chloride as good carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively. After optimization, a 6.56-increase in GA3 production was observed. The GA3 production was confirmed by thin layer chromatography. The GA3 crude extract obtained using submerged fermentation was then used to study its effect on germination and growth of green pea plant and paddy crops. It was observed that GA3 treated crops showed uniform growth and they were taller than non-treated plants, suggesting its application in increasing the crop plant harvests. Key words: Fusarium sp, isolation, gibberellic acid, optimization, submerged fermentation, crop plants. Introduction Gibberellic acids, also known as gibberellins, are the complex organic molecules acting as plant growth hormones. They are chemically known as diterpenoid acids having molecular formula C19H22O6. They regulate the functions like cell division, cell elongation, sex expression, seed germination, breakdown of seed dormancy and flowering etc. In microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, gibberellic acid 3 is the principal product of gibberellins, act as secondary metabolite (Bruckner and Blecschmidt, 1991; Karakoc and Aksoz, 2006). Till now, 136 gibberellins were isolated from various plants, and among that gibberellic acid 3 shows maximum biological activity (Rodrigues et al., 2011). The use of GA3 has been approved by food and drug administration (FDA) because of its tremendous application and nontoxic properties, and its safety for environment and human was confirmed by Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) (Rodrigues et al., 2011). In counties under development where mainly the economy relies on agriculture, the farmers have to use fertilizers and plant hormones to increase production. As most of fertilizers are associated with environmental pollution, plant growth hormones like gibberellic acid 3 have to be produced cost-effectively in huge amounts in order to enhance the quantity of agricultural products (Bilkay et al., 2010). Three routes to obtain GA3 have been reported, viz. extraction from plants, chemical synthesis and microbial fermentation. Among this the third method is the most common method to produce GA3 (Rios-Iribe et al., 2011). GA3 is industrially produced by Gibberella fujikuroi / Fusarium moniliforme under submerged (Santos et al., 2003; Karakoc and Aksoz, 2006). It is also produced by several other fungal species such as Aspergillus niger and Fusarium species and some bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Azobactor, and Azospirillu species (Rademacher, 1994). All above species produced ver y low yield of GA3 except Fusarium species in which most of the strains show the highest yield of GA3 than any other microbes (Rangaswamy, 2012). The search for new fungal species like Fusarium species capable of producing an important amount of GA3 is a continuous exercise. The aim of the present study was therefore to isolate and characterize a GA3 producing Fusarium sp. from soil, optimize the culture conditions for maximum GA3 production, and to evaluate its effect on green pea and rice growth promotion. Materials and Methods Soil sample selection To isolate strains of Fusarium, the soil sample was taken from Belgaum agriculture area (Karnataka state, India). This soil was black coloured having high water holding capacity, good fertility and also best soil for crops like paddy, all types of beans, sugarcane and all types of vegetables. Isolation of Fusarium species The soil sample collected from Belgaum agriculture land was taken, serially diluted in distilled water and inoculated in a Malachite green agar (MGA). Petri plates containing 15 g of peptone, 0.01 g of Malachite Green (triaryl methane dye), 1 g of potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 0.5 g of magnesium sulphate, and 20 g of agar per 1000 ml of distilled water were prepared. The incubation was carried out at 30  °C for 5 days (Castellà ¡ et al., 1977). The resulted various colonies were picked up and further inoculated in a potato dextrose agar (PDA) plate and incubated for a week for secondary pigmentation. The colony with different morphology and colour pigmentation were sub cultured on PDA slants and labelled (Avinash et al., 2003). The lactophenol cotton blue technique was used to study the characteristics of the fungal isolate (William and Cross, 1971). Screening of the isolates for GA3 production under submerged fermentation The Czapack Dox media (CD broth) containing sucrose (30 g), sodium nitrate (3 g), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (1 g), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (0.5 g), magnesium sulphate (0.5 g), potassium chloride (0.5 g) and ferrous sulphate (0.1 g) per 1000 ml of distilled water was used. The CD broth was prepared in conical flask and adjusted the pH to 7.0, and sterilised in an autoclave for 20 min at 15 psi. After cooling the medium, it was aseptically inoculated (1 Ãâ€" 108 spores / ml) with individual isolated strains. The fermentation flasks were kept on a rotary shaker (100 rpm) at 30  °C for 12 days (Kahlon et al., 1986; Karakoc et al., 2006; Rangaswamy, 2012). GA3 pre-treatment, extraction and estimation The fermented broth was taken and centrifuged at 13200 rpm for 10 min and the supernatant was taken and acidified to pH 2-2.5 using 1N HCl. GA3 was extracted trice using equal amount of ethyl acetate/NaHCO3 (Cho et al., 1979). The ethyl extract was kept on hot air oven at 50  °C overnight to remove ethyl acetate and obtain crystals of GA3 (Kahlon et al., 1986; Karakoc and Aksoz, 2006; Karakoc et al., 2006; Bilkay et al., 2010; Rangaswamy, 2012). It was estimated by Berrios et al. (2004) spectrophotometric method and absorption was read at 254 nm in UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Elico, SL-159 model, India). Confirmation of GA3 by thin layer chromatography (TLC) The slurry of silica gel was poured on a TLC plates, air dried, and the matrix was activated by keeping the plates on hot air oven at 80  °C for 1 h. GA3 dissolved in ethanol was added as a spot and plates were run using mobile phase containing isopropanol : ammonia : water (10:1:1) for 2 h. The plates were removed, sprayed with 3% sulphuric acid containing 50 mg FeCl3 and heated in oven at 80  °C for 10 min. The GA3 appeared as greenish black/spot fluorescence under UV light (Cavell et al., 1967; Srivastava et al., 2003). Optimization of culture conditions for maximum GA3 production by Fusarium sp. (isolate M-104). The incubation time for GA3 production by the fungal isolate under submerged fermentation at 30  °C and at initial pH 7.0 was analysed by inoculating CD broth with 1 ml of fungal spores and incubating on a rotary shaker (100 rpm) for 12 days. The sample was taken every day as the fermentation proceeds in order to find the most suitable incubation time for GA3 production. The effect of pH on GA3 production was studied by adjusting CD broth at different pH, viz. 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, and 8.0. The cultivation flasks were inoculated with 1.5% (v/v) inoculum, and incubated for 8 days on rotary shaker (100 rpm) at 30  °C. The effect of temperature on GA3 production was investigated by inoculating the fungal spores in CD broth of pH 7.0 and by incubating at three different temperatures 20, 30, 40, and 50  °C with other conditions remained same. The effect of carbon sources on GA3 secretion was analysed by replacing the sucrose in the CD broth of pH 5.5 by dextrose, glucose, ma nnitol, and starch, and by incubating at 30  °C for 8 days. The effect of nitrogen sources on GA3 secretion was analysed by replacing the sodium nitrate in the CD broth of pH 5.5 by glycine, ammonium chloride and ammonium sulfate at 30  °C for 8 days. Effect of GA3 on pea plant and paddy crops Seeds of pea plants were soaked in 200 ppm of GA3 fermented filtrate for 12 h and then sown in autoclaved soil. After a period of 8 days, 100 ppm of GA3 was sprayed on the plant for each alternative day for another 8 days. The control was soaked in water and sown in autoclaved soil and sprayed with distilled water only. The growth of both the control and test pea plants was monitored over a period of 15 days. 10 paddy seeds were soaked in 300 ppm of GA3 solution for about 2 days and sown in soil. They were sprayed with 200 ppm of GA3 after growth. The control seeds were soaked in water for the same period and sprayed with only water. The observation was carried out for 25 days (Tiwari et al., 2011; Susilawati et al., 2014). Statistical analysis The experiments were carried out in triplicate. ANOVA and DMRT at 5% significance level were used to give the differences between mean values, using SPSS statistical software. Results and Discussion Isolation of Fusarium species Four strains of Fusarium species were isolated from agriculture soil sample and labelled as M101, M102, M104 and M110. The present labelling was based on following pigmentation black, grey, blue and red, respectively. All strains had cottony growth appearance which is one of the important morphological characteristic of the Fusarium species. By staining the fungi with lactophenol cotton blue dye, it was observed that they had non septate hyaline mycelium/ hyphae as shown in figure 1a. The macrospores of banana shape were reseptated which is a unique microscopic feature of Fusarium species as shown in the figure1b. The isolation medium containing malachite green was chosen since malachite green inhibits the radial colony growth of the saprophytes and allows only growth of Fusarium species (Castellà ¡ et al., 1997). Screening for isolates for GA3 production GA3 can be commercially produced by submerged fermentation using different media but the most common synthetic medium is the Czapack Dox medium (CD broth) (Rangaswamy, 2012). The isolated strains M101, M102, M104 and M110 were subjected to submerged fermentation to check their ability for GA3 production. The different amounts of GA3 produced are given in the table 1 and Figure 2, and the strain M104 was the highest producer of GA3 among the four isolates. Similarly, Aspergillus niger strains produced different amounts of GA3 with the highest of 150.35 mg/l for A. niger Fursan (Cihangir and Aksoz, 1993). Likewise, various amounts of GA3 were produced by Lentinus tigrinus and Laetiporus (Ozcan, 2001). Optimization of culture conditions for maximum GA3 production by Fusarium isolate M104 The optimization of cultural parameters like incubation time, temperature, and pH, and nutritional conditions like nitrogen and carbon sources, is necessary to produce GA3 in a significant amount. Time course for GA3 production by the isolate M104 was studied. GA3 production started on day 3 and maximum production was observed at day 8, although statistically at par with day 9 and 10 (Table 2). Similar incubation time was noted for GA3 production by Fusarium monilifome (Rangaswamy, 2012). 9 days was optimal time for GA3 secretion by Fusarium fujikuroi SG2 (Uthandi et al., 2010) and Fusarium monilifome (Kobomoje et al., 2013). In contrast, a higher incubation time of 12 days was observed by for Fusarium moniliforme(Kahlon and Malhotra, 1986) and Aspergillus niger (Bilkay et al., 2010). The optimum incubation time for GA3 production by various fungal species depend therefore on the strain used. The short incubation period observed for GA3 production by fungal isolate M104 makes the fer mentation cost-effective. Among all pH investigated, the pH 5.5 showed the maximum production of GA3 which was 1478.2 mg/L (Table 2). pH 5.5 was also optimum for GA3 production by Fusarium monilifome (Kahlon and Malhotra, 1986; Kobomoje et al., 2013) and Fusarium fujikuroi SG2 (Uthandi et al., 2010). Bilkay et al. (2010) reported pH 5.0 as optimal time for GA3 production by Aspergillus niger, whereas pH 7.0 was optimum for GA3 production by Fusarium monilifome (Rangaswamy, 2012). The effect of temperature on GA3 production was analysed, and maximum production was observed at 30  °C (Table 3). The production of GA3 by various fungal species was also seen at an optimum temperature of 30  °C (Bilkay et al., 2010, Uthandi et al., 2010; Rangaswamy, 2012; Kobomoje et al., 2013). 25  °C was also optimum for GA3 production by Gibberella fujikuroi (Gelmi et al., 2002). A low GA3 yield at higher temperature was also recorded for GA3 production by Aspergillus niger (Bilkay et al., 2010). A low GA3 production was observed at higher temperatures because metabolic activities get stopped due to enzyme denaturation. The decrease in GA3 secretion by microbial species was ascribed to the variation in enzyme activity or thermal denaturation (Karakoc and Aksoz, 2006). The effect of carbon sources on GA3 production was investigated. Maximum GA3 production was seen when glucose was used as carbon source (Table 2). Similarly, glucose was best carbon source for GA3 production by Fusarium moniliforme (Rangaswamy, 2012; Kobomoje et al., 2013). However, a mixture of glucose and rice flour was necessary to get GA3 production by Fusarium fujikuroi SG2 (Uthandi et al., 2010). When the concentration of glucose was increased, a decrease in enzyme production is observed due to catabolite repression (Tudzynski, 1999). After analysing the effect of nitrogen sources on GA3 production, a significant yield was observed with ammonium chloride (Table 2). Similarly, an important yield was seen when ammonium chloride was used as nitrogen source for GA3 production by Fusarium fujikuroi SG2 (Uthandi et al., 2010). A low amount was seen when glycine was used as nitrogen source (Table 2). This can be attributed to the fact that glycine is a slowly consumed organic nitrogen source (Rodrigues et al., 2011). After exhaustion of nitrogen source, GA3 secretion starts and an important amount of carbon source is consumed (Tudzynski, 1999; Rodrigues et al., 2011). The submerged fermentation for GA3 production by the isolate M104 was carried out under shaking conditions (100 rpm) to allow proper mixing of nutrients, favouring oxygen circulation and GA3 production. A 3-fold increase was recorded for GA3 production by Aspergillus niger when the culture flasks were agitated (Bilkay et al., 2010). Rodrigues et al. (2011) reported that GA3 production has to be carried with aeration since GA3 biosynthesis requires various oxidative steps catalysed by different oxygenases. After optimization, a 6.56-enhancement in GA3 secretion was observed Thin layer chromatography (TLC) After GA3 extraction, crystals of GA3 were obtained as shown on the figure 3. After carrying TLC, the value of resolution factor (Rf) of GA3 was calculated as follow: Rf = distance from origin to solvent peak / distance from origin to sample spot detected = 7.9 cm / 10.8 cm = 0.7315 (Figure 4). The value was closing approximate to the GA3 standard value. Similarly, an approximate Rf value was recorded for the GA3 extracted from Fusarium monilifome (Rangaswamy, 2012). The TLC was also used to confirm the GA3 produced by Fusarium solani (Bhalla et al., 2010). Effect of GA3 on pea plants It is was observed that the pea plants sprayed with GA3 was 7 cm taller than the pea plants without the GA3 within a period of two weeks (Fig. 5). Similarly, size of the lily plants was increased following exogenous GA3 treatment and this was attributable to the protein synthesis stimulation (Mahmoody and Noori, 2014). Likewise, the hybridized rice plant height was increased after GA3 extract application (Srivastava et al., 2003). Effect of GA3 on paddy crops All the 10 paddy seeds treated with GA3 were able to germinate and have uniform growth, colour and height and average height was 9.5 cm within a total period of 25 days. The untreated seeds were able to germinate and had unequal growth and average height was 8.5 cm (Fig. 7). Similarly, the shoot and root heights, and the yield of chana and wheat crops were increased after GA3 extract application (Pandya and Desai, 2014). After GA3 application, an important productivity was seen for hybrid rice plant, following a better plant growth and physiological properties (Susilawati et al., 2014). The GA3 application also led to a significant yield for faba bean, compared to Ca2+ ion, and this was attributed to the improvement of growth and photosynthetic activity by the plant hormone (Al-Whaibi et al., 2010). Figure 7: Effect of GA3 on paddy crops: Uniform growth (left) and non-uniform growth (right). Paddy seeds were soaked in 300 ppm of GA3 solution for about 2 days and sown in soil. They were sprayed with 200 ppm of GA3 after growth. The control seeds were soaked in water for the same period and sprayed with only water. The observation was carried out for 25 days Conclusion Four strains of Fusarium were screened from Belgaum agriculture land by using a selective medium malachite green agar. They were confirmed as belonging to Fusarium species by lactophenol cotton blue spore staining method. The GA3 production depends on nutritional and physicochemical conditions. Strain M104 showed the highest GA3 production in CD broth. After optimization, a 5.56-increase in GA3 production was achieved. The pea plant sprayed with GA3 fungal extract was taller than unsprayed one. The effect of GA3 on paddy seeds showed uniform and more growth than control (without GA3). The isolate M104 can thus be used as a potent fungal species for GA3 production.   

Women in Chaucers Canterbury Tales Essay -- The Canterbury Tales Essay

The only two women most significant and described in great detail in The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer who provide the greatest insight into contemporary medieval society are the Wife of Bath and the Prioress. These two women appear similar in the General Prologue of the poem but, as we see through their tales, they are quite unique women and most importantly very different from one another. By examining both the Wife of Bath and the Prioress's tales, we are able to see the stark contrast between their social standards and behavior. However, in spite of the fact that these two ladies belong to two different social spheres, they surprisingly share some common characteristics. The initial similarity between these two women lies in their appearance but as the poem continues on we see that their life experience and their manner and personality are different from one to another. Chaucer's description of the two characters clearly describes the Prioress as a better nun. The Wife of Bath is the only woman, beside the Prioress and her companion Nun, on this pilgrimage. Chaucer discussed each of the two generally in all aspects beginning with their outer physical look, behavior, beliefs etc. Despite the first impression that Chaucer's description makes the Wife of Bath and the Prioress contradicting as day and night, a deeper look to it makes one observe their intersecting minor characteristics. As weird it may sounds as true it is to some extend. The first thing we come across is their physical look. The Wife of Bath even gap-toothed or a bit deaf she is pictured to have a rich tasteful dressing with her gorgeous distinct gown and fine scarlet red stockings and soft, fresh, brand new leather shoes. This description tells us ... ...rench of Paris was unknown to her. All of these characteristics show how the nun Prioress was focused on things that should not be important for a nun. Among her minor things, the nun in the tale actions was cautious and splendid. Her manners were unique, and practiced with perfection. Her table manners were admirable: she never let a morsel fall from her lips, nor wet her fingers too deeply in the sauce: daintily she carried a morsel to her lips, taking care that no drop should fall on her breast: she took much pleasure in proper etiquette. Her manners and being educated gave her joy, something that is wrong for a nun. Having manners for her was like giving a candy to a little boy. Also the author describes with a lot of details her manners to show us how important her behavior was for herself, an a nun's behavior should be reflected on other people not on herself.

Got Zinc? :: Essays Papers

Got Zinc? According to recent statistics, zinc is the third most commonly used nonferrous metal in the United States. This unassuming metal was among the first minerals exploited by Man, used as a decorative material for thousands of years, although it never achieved the fame and notoriety of other metals such as gold or silver. In more recent times, new extraction and processing methods have allowed Man to produce higher-quality zinc than ever before, and to use it in an astonishingly high number of chemical and high-tech applications. The term â€Å"zinc† was not in use until the 16th century, at the earliest. The ancient Greeks called it â€Å"pseudargyras,† meaning â€Å"false silver,† and made very little use of it (Mathewson 1). The unassuming bluish-gray mineral was given a warmer welcome by the Romans, who were already using it to make brass by â€Å"about the time of Augustus, 20BC to 14AD†; the Romans used, not purified zinc, but the mineral calamine (â€Å"zincky wall accretions† from caves) and fused them in a crucible with bits of copper to make their brass (Mathewson 1). Around the world, zinc was being exploited by the Chinese civilization as well, although documentation of Asian use of zinc does not come until the 7th century of AD, from Kazwiui, the â€Å"Pliny of the Orient.† Kazwiui, â€Å"who died in 630AD, stated that the Chinese knew how to render the metal malleable and used it to make small coins and mirrors† (Mathewson 2). The discovery and us e of zinc, then, was widespread in ancient times and through the Middle Ages. However, it seems that it had not yet been used for anything much more practical than a mirror, a fact that would very quickly change in the 18th and 19th centuries as higher-grade zinc became available and new applications presented themselves. One of the most common applications of zinc in its early days was as a component in roofing. A report was presented to the Institute of British Architects in 1860 that revealed â€Å"that nearly every roof laid in Paris during the previous fifteen years had been covered in zinc, and this included famous buildings such as the Louvre and the Hotel de Ville† (Porter 73). The report was presented because British architects feared that they would lose technological pace with architects from the European mainland if they did not learn to take advantage of this valuable resource, which became increasingly fashionable.

Dantes Divine Comedy - Symbolism in the Punishment of Sin in The Infer

The Symbolism in the Punishment of Sin in Dante's Inferno  Ã‚      Inferno, the first part of Divina Commedia, or the Divine Comedy, by Dante Alighieri, is the story of a man's journey through Hell and the observance of punishments incurred as a result of the committance of sin. In all cases the severity of the punishment, and the punishment itself, has a direct correlation to the sin committed. The punishments are fitting in that they are symbolic of the actual sin; in other words, "They got what they wanted." (Literature of the Western World, p.1409) According to Dante, Hell has two divisions: Upper Hell, devoted to those who perpetrated sins of incontinence, and Lower Hell, devoted to those who perpetrated sins of malice. The divisions of Hell are likewise split into levels corresponding to sin. Each of the levels and the divisions within levels 7,8, and 9 have an analogous historical or mythological figure used to illustrate and exemplify the sin. The first of the two divisions of Hell is Upper Hell. Upper Hell is the area habitated by those committing sins of incontinence or lack of self-restraint. This lack of self-restraint could be in the form of anything from sex to mood. Before delving into the sins of incontinence, one must first look into the first inconsistency of the Inferno. This inconsistency is found in the Vestibule of Hell. The Vestibule of Hell contains the trimmers and the neutrals. Although almost all other sins mentioned in the Inferno are of an ethical, universal standpoint, the ones mentioned here are sins only from the Christian point of view. These neutrals are the people who either showed no partisanship or did not take sides. Lines 37-39 and 46-50 read: They are joined with that choir... ...ion. Dante cites now-historical and mythological figures to exemplify the sins and to make for the better understanding of sin to even the most inept of readers. This work stands alongside The Bible as one of the greatest religious-literary masterpieces of all time.    Works Cited Literature of the Western World, Volume 2. 4th edition by Brian Wilkie and James Hurt. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1997. Works Consulted Niven, Larry and Pournelle, Jerry. Inferno. New York: Pocket Books,1976. MacAllister, Archibald T. Introduction. Inferno. By Dante. New York: Mentor, 1954. Pinsky, Robert. The Inferno of Dante. New York: Harper Collins, 1994. Shippey, T.A. "Into Hell and Out Again". Times Literary Supplement, 8 July 1977, .820. Spinrad, Norman. Introduction to Inferno, by Niven and Pournelle. Boston: Gregg Press, 1979. Dante's Divine Comedy - Symbolism in the Punishment of Sin in The Infer The Symbolism in the Punishment of Sin in Dante's Inferno  Ã‚      Inferno, the first part of Divina Commedia, or the Divine Comedy, by Dante Alighieri, is the story of a man's journey through Hell and the observance of punishments incurred as a result of the committance of sin. In all cases the severity of the punishment, and the punishment itself, has a direct correlation to the sin committed. The punishments are fitting in that they are symbolic of the actual sin; in other words, "They got what they wanted." (Literature of the Western World, p.1409) According to Dante, Hell has two divisions: Upper Hell, devoted to those who perpetrated sins of incontinence, and Lower Hell, devoted to those who perpetrated sins of malice. The divisions of Hell are likewise split into levels corresponding to sin. Each of the levels and the divisions within levels 7,8, and 9 have an analogous historical or mythological figure used to illustrate and exemplify the sin. The first of the two divisions of Hell is Upper Hell. Upper Hell is the area habitated by those committing sins of incontinence or lack of self-restraint. This lack of self-restraint could be in the form of anything from sex to mood. Before delving into the sins of incontinence, one must first look into the first inconsistency of the Inferno. This inconsistency is found in the Vestibule of Hell. The Vestibule of Hell contains the trimmers and the neutrals. Although almost all other sins mentioned in the Inferno are of an ethical, universal standpoint, the ones mentioned here are sins only from the Christian point of view. These neutrals are the people who either showed no partisanship or did not take sides. Lines 37-39 and 46-50 read: They are joined with that choir... ...ion. Dante cites now-historical and mythological figures to exemplify the sins and to make for the better understanding of sin to even the most inept of readers. This work stands alongside The Bible as one of the greatest religious-literary masterpieces of all time.    Works Cited Literature of the Western World, Volume 2. 4th edition by Brian Wilkie and James Hurt. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1997. Works Consulted Niven, Larry and Pournelle, Jerry. Inferno. New York: Pocket Books,1976. MacAllister, Archibald T. Introduction. Inferno. By Dante. New York: Mentor, 1954. Pinsky, Robert. The Inferno of Dante. New York: Harper Collins, 1994. Shippey, T.A. "Into Hell and Out Again". Times Literary Supplement, 8 July 1977, .820. Spinrad, Norman. Introduction to Inferno, by Niven and Pournelle. Boston: Gregg Press, 1979.

Leadership in Sport Context Essay

Leadership is hard to specifically define, roles and attributes change to adapt to the environment and context needed. George and Jones define leadership as ‘ the exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization’ (2002,pg. 375). This definition can be broken down with two definitions; Firstly exerting influence over other members and second aiding in a group or organization achieve its goals. ‘Leadership is something everyone would like to claim as a personal attribute, but it is very difficult to get any consensus on quite what it means’. (Weightman, 2004, pg. 129) Many theories and models have been developed to discover different approaches to leadership aiming to identify different traits and characteristics thought needed to be a good leader. In this portfolio I am going to explore different leadership approaches and attributes within the context of sport. Through examples of current lead ers in sport I hope to identify similarities to theoretical evidence. Sport is a disciplined activity that demonstrates a lot of role models for leadership, not just athletes, a lot of jobs within the sport sector include leadership qualities. What makes a leader? The debate between is a leader born or made has opened up a lot of questions to what the attributes of a good leader are. Agreeing that a leader is influential and needs to inspire through organizing change makes us ponder weather traits of a leader are in their personalities or a skill you can acquire over time. Often leaders are associated with having certain personality traits that highlight them as an admirable person. Davis (1972) found the four general traits related to leadership success were: * Intelligence- leaders are found to have high intelligence than their followers * Social Maturity- self-assurance and self- respect and can handle a wide variety of social situations * Achievement drive- found to have a strong drive to get things done * Human- Relations attitudes- leaders know that they rely on other people to get things done, and therefore interested in their team members This traits model focuses on the personality that the leader has on contrast to the job that needs to be done. Agreeing that traits above would aid an individual to take control and lead others in order to influence, further research found the context in what your leading was equally as important. Building on Davis’s model it is important for a leader to be a people person that can withhold authority in a variety of situations, but also with the ability to display their views to a variety of people in intention to influence and inspire. Davis amongst others were previously unsuccessful in showing theoretical evidences that proved common personality traits or qualities. It was soon found more realistic analyses would be to consider the functions a leader demonstrate in order to fulfill his task specific to the context. Sport can be individual or team based but will still involve numerous people. A leadership model discovered in 1982 demonstrates the need of three leadership functions I found present in most sport leaders. These are: the task to be accomplished together, maintaining social cohesion of the group and individual needs of team members. This model shows the three independent functions and how they overlap to form a leadership style that focuses on achieving the outcome of the leader in this case success for a sports team or individual. If the task fails or performed badly, there is diminished satisfaction for the individual and the group tends to fall apart. If the group lacks unity, this will also affect performance. If the individual is discontented, then he or she will not give his or her best performance. This emphasizes the essential of unity of leadership, demonstrating a single action by a leader may influence all areas, and is specific to a sport context. Example Sven- Goran Eriksson- team manager of various football teams (including England) (www.guardian.co.uk) Sven admirable leadership displays most of Davis personality traits alongside achieving success for himself and various teams. Sven’s cosmopolitan background gives him an advantage within a wide audience of players and is well known for his expertise within football. Despite not getting too attached to people, that enforces authority; he creates empathy and trust within all he leads. A strong attribute is his diplomatic approach, he is seen to support and value the work of others. Demonstrating his ability in leading various teams to success he relates to Adair’s model. Maintaining a good cohesion between the team is very important within football but he doesn’t neglect the individual players needs. He implements their opinion into making good decisions for the team as a whole to lead them to success. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership is best describes a leader who effects followers who are intended to trust, admire and respect. They are known for following and seeing through a personal vision whilst gaining trust of supporters. James Macgregor Burns introduced a concept of transformational leadership in his book Leadership in 1978. He defines ‘leaders and followers make each other to advance to a higher level of moral and motivation. Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are able to inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions and motivations to work towards common goals’ (pg. 203, 2012). A sporting example of a transformation leader is Paula Radcliffe. Paula relates heavily to a later theory developed by Bernard M. Bass. Bass’s Transformational Leadership Theory He suggested leadership is defined as the impact it has on followers Burns identified 3 ways in which leaders transform their followers * Increasing their awareness of task importance and value * Getting them to focus first on team of organizational goals, rather than their own interests * Activating there higher-order needs Agreeing that people will follow a person who inspires them. Such individual needs to have a vision and passion and quest to achieve great things. ‘She puts all her energy and time in quest to be the best distance runner in the world’ (www.bbcsport.com) (www.sportsjournalists.co.uk) Yet to win an Olympic medal, all due to injury, she has brought the women’s marathon running to a new level and pushed the limits where no other women have gone. Paula supported many charities, alongside the progression of keen runners during her career. In 2004 she inspired many when joining Jonathan Edwards on an Olympic Special Millionaire, raising  £64,000 for charity. Excluding her physical achievements but she has been recognized for her personality and good sportsmanship through a number of awards. (Taken from my presentation) Ethical Leadership â€Å"Rowe (1997) points out, ethics can be taught in two very different ways. It can be taught using the models of absolute values, or as theologians and philosophers call them ‘ first principles’- That is, the absolute right and wrong ways of doing things. But it can also be taught in terms of how we all have our own way of seeing things. According to this view, values are relative to individuals and the situations in which they find themselves- the right way depends on the context†. Ethics pays an important part in sport for it is the discipline in rules and regulations that gives the entitlement to win and loose competition. Current competition requires a lot of testing prior, during and post competition in order to detect various methods of cheating. Many sports could be seen as unethical due to bad press of officiators, rules and regulations. The importance of ethics in sports defines giving everyone an equal opportunity showing no favouritism or discrimination. Paula highly demonstrates the traits of an ethical leader. Her career has consisted of fighting defend the fair-ness and reputation of the sport. ‘Most athletes were clean and we’re increasing becoming un-happy at the way the sport was being portrayed’ (www.paularadcliffe.com) Proving her ethical leadership qualities I have related Paula to the below model. This model states seven habits that a discovered commonly in ethical leaders. Seven Habits of Strong Ethical Leaders- Stephen R. Covey 1. Strong Personal Character 2. Passion to do right 3. Proactive Behavior 4. Stakeholder interest in mind 5. Recognition of their values as role models 6. Awareness that their decision making should be transparent 7. Holistic view of human beings and firm’s ethical culture Paula’s willingness to stand up for her rights and correct the sport permanently for others, was demonstrated by launched her campaign against ‘drugs in sport’ Despite the amount of drug tests required, it was discovered that the system was not capable of detecting the most effect and abused doping product using in running. She quotes ‘fear is no reason not to do what is right’ (www.paularadcliffe.com) In 2001 at Edmonton she held up a sign saying ‘EPO cheats out’. This was particularly aimed at a competitor that had been tested and found guilty of the blood doping, yet the result was over turned because the French testing authorities did not adhere to IAAF protocol. (www.paularadcliffe.com/gallery/images/08.jpg) Does Gender Effect Leadership? Sport is frequently seen as a masculine dominated sector. â€Å"Sport has been demonstrated to help some women achieve empowerment†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Theberge and Birrell, 1994, pg. 147) In all previous leadership theories mentioned none are specific to gender. With this is mind; still women in leadership are found to be in the minority. Fred Fielder recognises the effectiveness of a task should be considered in defining leadership. His Contingency theory of leadership, developed in 1961, focuses on 1) Why in a particular situations, some leaders will be more effective than other leaders even though they have equally good credentials. 2) Why a particular leader may be more effective in one situation and not another â€Å"Although women’s participation has risen, women’s involvement in sport as providers has dropped†. (Sports Council, 1992) The recent rise in women participating sport has lead to success in gaining responsibility in areas of sport such as leadership and coaching. The theory above I find is relevant for it can be used against women who are seen as good leaders just would be put out of context when it comes to sport. An example within sport is an American, Shannon Eastin Shannon Eastin made history by being the first female official in a male dominated sport, relating to fielders theory she was seen out of context for the job and is now recognised for her confidence of breaking the stereotype. Shannon became Inspirational for Women who feel not equal to take part in male orientated sports. (www.chargers.com) David Cotter et al defined four distinctive characteristics in his Glass Ceiling Approach (1988) 1. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial difference that is not explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee.† 2. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial difference that is greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome. 3. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial inequality in the chances of advancement into higher levels, not merely the proportions of each gender or race currently at those higher levels.† 4. â€Å"A glass ceiling inequality represents a gender or racial inequality that increases over the course of a career.† This approach is commonly used when individuals or groups are stereotyped and therefore seen as unusual or abstract to be breaking these barriers. When successful of breaking the prejudice against them it is seen as breaking through the barrier to the glass celling. Previous women leaders in sport are seen to be very inspirational, they are made to feel not equal to take part in male orientated sports and therefore demonstrate the glass barrier celling approach when they do a lot making history for women in that context. Even though they might break down these barriers they still not be highly respected and followed by all and will be not seen as equal by all. In todays society there are many powerful female role models. An example in sport is Jessica Ennis. Through the 2012 Olympic she demonstrated her talents and perseverance in sport that achieved amazing results. (www.mirror.co.uk) Conclusion In developing my research from the tutorials I have found leaders are adaptable not only to context, but to individuals. People will find different qualities within the same person that they consider being a trait of a leader. â€Å"Even researches often disagree about which characteristics best describe leadership†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (George et Jones, 2005,pg. 275). Theories and Models help display similar characteristics within leaders but shouldn’t be used to define what a leader should be. Transformation and Ethical leaders are very common within sport for they are found to be influential to their public and demonstrate good morals within sport. All the leaders used in this portfolio are respected, followed and successful in completing their task in hand whilst being influential.